Featured Article Summary #254

The Noemvriana, or “November Events,” was a violent clash in Athens in December 1916 between Greece and the Allied Powers. It began after the fortress of Roupel was surrendered to the Central Powers in May 1916, which made the Allies fear that the Greek government might secretly support them. Diplomatic talks failed, and as fighting expanded in Macedonia, pro-Allied Greek officers backed by Eleftherios Venizelos set up a provisional government in northern Greece, splitting the country into rival factions. When the Allies landed troops in Athens on 1 December to demand the return of war material, they were met with resistance, and fighting ended only after a temporary agreement. After the Allies left, royalist supporters rioted and attacked Venizelos’s followers, lasting a few days and deepening divisions within Greece, during what became the height of the National Schism. Afterward, the Allies increased pressure on King Constantine I, including a naval blockade, and once Greece was unified under Venizelos in 1917, it joined the Allies and helped defeat the Central Powers in 1918. After the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), Greece gained much territory, but later faced new disputes and threats as Europe moved toward World War I. Greece’s leadership split over whether to join the war: Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos favored the Allies, while King Constantine—German-influenced and sympathetic to the Central Powers—wanted Greece to stay neutral. Britain’s offer to support Greek ambitions in Asia Minor led to conflict between them, and when Bulgaria attacked Serbia in 1915, Venizelos pushed for Greek counter-mobilization—only for the King to block it, causing political crisis. The Allies then landed at Thessaloniki in October 1915 to protect the area and help Serbia, taking advantage of its vulnerability to a German–Bulgarian advance. After Venizelos resigned, Greece’s new governments promised “sincere benevolent neutrality” toward the Allies, but their actions increasingly aimed to satisfy the King and effectively match German interests. This became clear in 1916 when Allied troop requests were blocked and, after Germany warned of an invasion and guaranteed Greece’s safety, Athens ordered Fort Roupel’s commander to surrender. Even after these assurances, Bulgarian forces rounded up Greek civilians and prepared to take and later annex key cities, culminating in the Bulgarian occupation of Kavala in September 1916. After Fort Roupel was surrendered, the Allies believed Germany and Bulgaria had gained Greek agreement to invade, which they saw as a breach of Greek neutrality and a threat to Allied forces in Macedonia. The Allied press pushed for action, leading Sarrail to impose martial law in Thessaloniki and Greek forces to be withdrawn from Northern Epirus, causing Greece to lose more territory. Venizelos saw the loss of Fort Roupel as the loss of Greek Macedonia and tried to set up a provisional government in Thessaloniki to raise an army against the Bulgarians, but Britain opposed the plan. Meanwhile, the Allies met in London and demanded the Greek army and navy be demobilized, later pressing for the dissolution of parliament and new elections, aiming to restore Venizelos’s leadership. The Greek royal government partially complied, including dismissing the chief of staff, but tensions escalated as both sides organized demobilized soldiers into rival reservist groups. On 27 August 1916, Venizelos publicly criticized the King’s policies, saying the King was being controlled by advisers and urging more benevolent neutrality. When the King refused to compromise, Venizelos’s supporters in the army led a coup in Thessaloniki two days later to create a provisional government, bringing in regions like the “New Lands” where support for Venizelos was stronger than in “Old Greece.” Venizelos formed a leadership team, directed Greek involvement in the Allied war effort despite royalist wishes, and continued trying to persuade the King to help recover Macedonia—though many citizens still feared he wanted to end the dynasty, pushing him toward a more radical approach only after the Noemvriana.